a report prepared by the
Memphis Shelby Crime Commission
at the request of
Dr. Carol Johnson, Superintendent, Memphis City Schools

Introduction and Methodology
At the request of Dr. Carol Johnson, Superintendent, Memphis City Schools, the Memphis Shelby Crime Commission agreed to review the literature pertaining to the use of closed campuses as a strategy for reducing truancy. The purpose of the review is to determine the efficacy of closing Memphis City Schools’ campuses in an effort to increase student attendance and reduce truancy.

The staff of the Crime Commission conducted a search of available literature on the subject. Specifically, reports documenting the experiences of other school districts that closed their campuses were examined for their outcomes and for their relevancy to forming an opinion regarding the benefits closed campuses might have for Memphis City School students.

The Issue
Many school systems across the country have instituted a closed campus policy as part of a multi-dimensional and comprehensive approach designed to create safe and effective schools. While there seems to be some controversy regarding the effectiveness of closed campuses for reducing school violence, there appears to be little evidence to contradict claims made that closing a school’s campus increases school and class attendance and provides a number of additional positive benefits for students, school staff and the community. Often, although not always, coupled with a daytime curfew ordinance, closing school campuses is generally considered a successful strategy for controlling and reducing truancy.

A Center for Policy Studies, Education Research, and Community Development Research Brief reported that there is a 71% high public priority for closing school campuses.¹ A National Action Plan on School Violence and Kids from 2:00 pm to 8:00 pm prepared by the United States Conference of Mayors in 1998 stated that, "school campuses should be closed and lunch required on school premises to reduce crime and violence during school hours."² Across the country, in California, Nevada, Michigan and Washington, school districts are reporting a wide range of positive outcomes, including reduced truancy, after instituting a closed campus policy in previously open campus schools. The only serious obstacle to instituting a closed campus policy appears to be the associated costs, staffing and facility requirements while a somewhat more readily resolvable difficulty to consider is the resistance likely to emanate from students and others uncomfortable or in disagreement with the necessary changes.

What is a closed campus?³
Closed school campuses require students to stay on the school campus during their entire school day including during their lunch period. Any individual exceptions to the closed campus policy are clearly delineated, short-term in nature, and carefully monitored. School personnel generally grant students permission to leave the school campus on a case-by-case basis in response to written requests from parents or guardians or for participation in specialized activities, work experience or community service. All visitors are registered and approved. Students found off school property during school hours are usually subject to state or local truancy laws.

How does a closed campus affect school attendance?
Directly, a closed campus impacts school attendance by reducing afternoon truancy. It is not uncommon for students who are allowed to leave school for lunch to not return to school for their afternoon classes. A closed campus policy removes access to the temptations that exist for these students who may loose track of time, be inclined to participate in drug and alcohol use, be lured by gang activity and recruitment, or just are invited by friends to go to an afternoon movie or take a nap.

In addition, closed campuses indirectly boost attendance and reduce truancy by creating a more positive school experience that encourages greater attendance and success for students and staff alike, by allowing a more efficient use of law enforcement resources, and by initiating more cooperation with potential community partners.

Districts with a closed campus policy report that suspensions and expulsions are reduced and attendance is increased overall. A positive correlation is reported between closed campuses and academic achievement and higher grade-point averages. More students participate in intramural programs, student activities, and have a higher level of school spirit. It has even been suggested that school staff have a better understanding of their students from the increased contact and participation. Students often enjoy improved food selection and preparation, especially when the district's food service program responds more to students' food choices. All of these positive dynamics contribute to students having decreased conflict with their schools, most feeling more attached to their schools and many performing more successfully in both scholastic and non-scholastic activities. This results in the development of a more cohesive school community and climate and a positive and nurturing environment that encourages greater attendance.

Closed campuses provide better public safety and a better use of law enforcement staff time. Districts with closed campuses have found that fewer daytime residential burglaries and other incidents of crime occur in communities surrounding the school campus. Relationships improve with local law enforcement and law enforcement agencies report fewer investigation calls to neighborhoods surrounding campuses. Extra officers to work during the school's lunchtime to respond to community calls are no longer necessary. The officers’ time and energy can be re-directed to locating and reaching out to students with serious attendance problems.

Additionally, closed campus policies eliminate the majority of foot and automobile traffic off campus during the school day. School staff can more easily monitor outsiders who enter the school campus and local law enforcement personnel can more easily identify youth in the community who are truant. This advantage often eliminates the need for separate school district truancy officers. Again, officers’ can have more time to conduct truancy sweeps and other more aggressive attempts to locate truant students.

Finally, closed campus schools tend to enjoy improved relationships with their communities. There are fewer complaints from neighboring businesses and residential communities about students loitering, littering, or fighting off-campus. Many businesses have advocated for closed campuses even though they may experience a drop in their lunchtime business from students because older customers cannot easily access stores or restaurants when students are "hanging out." Some businesses report increased sales because customers are no longer fearful of large numbers of youth congregated at the businesses. Community members and businesses with improved relations with their neighborhood schools may be more inclined to support the school, cooperate with truancy abatement efforts and even participate in incentive programs for students.

What are some of the most common pros and cons associated with a closed campus policy?

How do students and families respond to a closed campus policy?
It can be anticipated that students will not initially embrace the concept of a closed campus, but when schools and districts involve students from the beginning and give them opportunities to identify implementation strategies, they build student acceptance. This is important if students are to view closing school campuses as an opportunity to create a safe environment and develop new programs (See Key Issues discussion below).

A closed campus policy should not deter family and community involvement on campus. Concurrent with enforcement of a closed campus policy, a school should make sure that family and community members understand the policy in the positive context of all the advantages and know their participation on campus is very much encouraged. The security of knowing the campus is safe may actually increase the comfort level of family and community members and encourage them to spend time on campus.

What funding is necessary to close a campus?
Closing a campus may require some additional initial funding, but the funding needs can be minimal and temporary. For example, fencing to demarcate the campus boundaries is often considered to be a prerequisite for closed campuses. Some districts that have closed their campuses, however, report that fencing may be needed only in strategic areas and may not be necessary around the entire campus. It is important to consider the number of entrances and exits to the school building(s) and the access and use of athletic grass playing fields, dug-outs, parking lots, or remote, typically unused locations, when assessing the funding required to effectively close the perimeter of a campus.

The design of areas inside the school, particularly those used during lunch-time, is also important to examine. Most closed campus supervisors will have vast areas to supervise if there are no limitations or off-limit boundaries. Funding maybe necessary to create barriers or modify building layouts to limit access to designated areas of the campus to make supervision easier.

In addition to specific barriers that demarcate the campus and areas within the campus, some schools may also need additional covered seating capacity for students eating lunch on campus. On clear warmer days, schools can use a cabana-type structure for seating; rainy or cooler days require an enclosed structure.

Increased supervision will also require additional funding. It is recommended that a full or part time campus supervisor be employed to organize lunch-time activities. Some schools use a group of parent and community volunteers who can supervise lunch-time activities. Many schools and districts report good support from grandparents, retired community persons, and personnel from community-based organizations willing to assist schools with supervision. These volunteers could be provided with a stipend to cover their transportation needs or may be offered special uniforms to signify their importance. Funding may also be necessary for communication devices for campus supervisors, including two-way radios and small cameras.

While seeming significant, the financial costs required to close a campus are primarily start up costs. Most, if not all of the ongoing expenses may be offset by reductions in other school programs or from the increased attendance that results with the closed campus. Revenue may also be generated by charging outside food vendors a fee or by charging a minimal fee for lunch-time activities such as movies, shows or Internet access.

What equipment is helpful to close a campus?
When schools have an increased need for supervising large numbers of students during lunch-time, they may find additional equipment useful in maintaining a peaceful and safe environment. Communication devices are helpful for campus supervisors, such as two-way radio devices for supervisors, cellular telephones for administrators, and small pocket cameras or portable video cameras to record lunch-time activities or document student activities. Video excerpts of intramural sports or specialized club activities can be used as a way of increasing school spirit at assemblies. Furthermore, the mere presence of the camera helps dispel disciplinary problems, as few students who engage in questionable activities want to be filmed.

Is staff training needed to close a campus?
Schools with closed campuses report that students, staff members, and parents benefit from receiving training in conflict resolution skills. School staff may also need information regarding how to recognize potential gang problems, how to diffuse potentially assaultive behaviors, how to effectively deal with rumors on campus, and how to implement school-wide programs to heighten sensitivity and acceptance of student diversity.

How can a closed school handle the increased amount of lunchtime litter?
Schools can anticipate an increase in the amount of litter produced when more students are on campus for the entire day. Schools with closed campuses have responded in several ways. Additional trash cans may be placed in locations where students eat their lunches. It is recommended that plastic trash cans that are flammable be avoided. Schools may offer students the option of participating in a clean up program after lunch in lieu of receiving an in-house suspension for minor offenses.

Some schools have initiated recycling programs on campus raising funds for their student association. This strategy requires offering students direction regarding how to recycle and instruction in the recycling procedures to be used on campus. Some schools have incorporated class competition to increase the amount of recycled items. Recycling companies have provided collection containers and pick-up services. If student directed, a recycling program would qualify as a service learning project for which a number of national funding opportunities exist.

What problems increase with a closed campus?
Schools do report an increase in the amount of on-campus smoking because students are not able to leave campus to smoke. It is recommended that schools be prepared with smoking cessation programs for youth and be able to enforce disciplinary consequences for smoking. It is also reported that schools may experience an increase in student conflicts unless they have instituted active conflict management and peer mediation programs and provide activities during lunch-time.

How to close a campus:
Step 1: Collect data that supports the reasons for adopting a closed campus policy. Continue to collect and analyze these data and evaluate the impact of the policy over time. Use the data to responsively drive modification of policy and procedures as indicated. A starting point for collecting data might be an analysis of the attendance rates at the Memphis City Schools with closed campuses versus comparable Memphis City Schools with open campuses (see listing below).

Step 2: Consult with the school district’s insurance carrier to determine their viewpoint on closed versus open campuses and evaluate any liability issues that will be relevant for planning and budgeting.

Step 3: Create a broad-based Advisory Group that includes all major stakeholders to participate in the planning. Their participation in the planning group serves to (1) identify all the issues specific to the community; (2) gather data and input from the larger community; (3) build awareness regarding the details and benefits of closed campuses; (4) prepare and create support for school change; (5) promote "buy-in" and commitment in the belief that closed campuses will work from students, parents, local businesses, and other community groups; (6) develop a clear rationale for closed campuses; and (7) off-set possible negative media coverage from "human interest" stories.

Start working with the Advisory Group in the spring preceding the school year in which a closed-campus policy is to be implemented. This lead-up period provides sufficient time for input and involvement and allows students and staff time to adjust to the new policy over a vacation period from school. Be sure to include members from all groups in the community and translate all materials into all the primary languages spoken in the community.

Advisory group members must represent all groups impacted by the decision:

• students (have more than one student in the group and be sure these students represent all students, not just the traditional leaders.)
• high school and middle school principals
• vice/assistant principals
• governing board members
• superintendent's staff
• teachers
• student activity directors/school counselors
• school food service directors and local fast food providers
• school police and local law enforcement
• Chamber of Commerce and local business representatives
• parents/guardians (make sure the parent/guardian members represent the diversity of the community.)
• school-linked services collaboratives
• community members, including representatives from the parks and recreation agencies
• media representatives
• bargaining unit representatives

Step 4: Involve the local media in the early work to close a school campus. Local media can conduct opinion polls and summarized results in subsequent issues. Most opinion polls support the implementation of a closed campus policy.

Step 5: Engage the Advisory Group in identifying key issues related to closing school campuses and determining what priority should be given to each issue. Encourage Advisory Group members to visit schools that have a closed-campus policy to observe the practical applications of the closed campus and to determine what solutions could be used for their school and district.

Each Advisory Group member should be responsible for communicating information to and soliciting input from the constituency they represent. The group can also provide important assistance in drafting rules and procedures, providing activity programs, and designing food service operations.

Based on the status of each key issue, a priority order for planning, resource allocation, and implementation can be developed. Generally, districts and schools that have closed their campuses set resource allocations in the following priority order: food service, supervision, and student activities.

Provide sufficient input time from the advisory group. This should be a minimum of six to eight weeks. Those who have been successful in closing school campuses emphasize the importance of allowing enough time for this step.

Key Issues regarding the implementation of closed campuses:
Several issues may complicate the decision to close school campuses during the school day, but schools and districts with closed campuses have addressed these issues effectively. Some of the issues perceived to be troublesome were easily overcome with creative and persistent efforts.

• School/Community Acceptance

Although there is ample evidence regarding the efficacy of closing campuses, schools and districts may find subgroups in the community, particularly among well performing students, who question the need for closed campuses. In addition to reducing truancy, a major "sales point" and rationale for closing campuses is the safety of students and staff members. When students, staff, parents, and community representatives understand reasons for closing campuses, they generally support the decision.

Each school community constituency should be involved in identifying possible barriers to closing school campuses and recommending solutions to these anticipated barriers. In addition to consideration of this question by the Advisory Board, it maybe useful to conduct several focus groups, roundtable discussions or town hall meetings to identify issues and garner support.

Schools and districts experienced in closed campuses strongly suggest soliciting input from all students and constituency groups about solutions and emphasize the need for stating clear reasons and advantages for the new policy. Calling it the positive "green light" approach to building community support, these districts anticipated that there would be some negative reaction to the concept of closed campuses and after each constituency group had provided input, they returned to them with a plan that incorporated as much of their input as possible.

In approaching local businesses, who may initially be troubled by the thought of reduced revenue from students who patronize their establishments during lunch-time, it is important to emphasize the benefit to their operations when students no longer use their facility to congregate: clientele are more likely to spend more money on lunch, there is less litter on their premises and less potential for vandalism. In addition, experience has shown that businesses located in districts that have instituted a closed campus policy continue to find that students spend their money at the local businesses, doing so when school is let out in the afternoon rather than during lunch-time.

• Food Service for All Students

One of the major issues schools and districts face when closing a campus is providing lunch to students who would have left campus for outside fast food restaurants. Schools and districts have several choices to make regarding how to accommodate all students with adequate food service, including: the number and length of lunch periods to accommodate all students, the type of food served to students, and the number of service areas.

    -Number and length of lunch periods: Some schools have opted for two short lunch periods, 30 to 35 minutes in length, to minimize the students' free time during lunch and lessen supervision problems. Some of these campuses have lunch period assignments based on grade levels while others divide lunches by geographic location on the campus (west wing has the first lunch period and east wing the second). Other schools have a 15 minute period between lunch periods to insure that all students are in class, minimize student contact during passing times and avoid "double" lunching.

Schools that opt for a single long lunch period report an increase in school spirit and student involvement. These schools provide a myriad of student activities designed to address student interests and informally connect students and staff members. It is suggested that students be involved in the design and carry-through of lunch-time activities during longer lunch periods, because the greater the student involvement, the greater the rate of participation.

    -Type of food served to students: Schools with closed campuses must examine their lunch food service menus to insure that the food served is appealing, nutritious, and accessible. Food service programs can offer food that complements vendor's offerings, and they can increase the students' use of the school-sponsored food program. Some schools have initiated salad bars and report their sales have increased significantly.

When considering outside vendors for lunch-time alternatives, it is important to coordinate the type of food and food delivery with the school food service program to insure that it complements what the district's food service program provides to students. For example, pizza days sponsored by the food service program can be undermined if an outside vendor offers pizza the same day. Districts that have closed campuses report additional revenue from fees charged to vendors for the privilege of selling food on campus.

It is recommended that students be invited to taste test food products considered for lunch-time offerings. When students have the opportunity to taste test products prior to marketing the item, they feel more involved and can promote the new food item as a positive advantage to the closed campus.

    -Number of service areas: Schools with closed campuses report the need for an increase in food service areas scattered around the school campus. More service points allow for an increased number of students to be fed in a shorter time. Providing a larger number of service areas helps to avoid large groups of students congregating in one place and reduces the likelihood of lunch-time disruptions.  

• Student Lunch-time Activities

Student activities are powerful strategies to engage all students and increase their feeling of "connectedness" to school and school staff members. Schools should develop a comprehensive strategy for lunch-time activities, based on student input, to ensure there are high quality activities for students during the lunch-time that can complement a rigorous academic program and reinforce the personal and social skills (such as, decision making, leadership, communication, and goal setting) being developed in the instructional program.

It is recommended that a full or part time director of student activities be hired or designated to specifically coordinate lunch-time activities to avoid adding additional responsibilities to teachers without some type of benefit for them.

Students provide the best source of information about what type of activities should be provided during the lunch period. A survey of students may be helpful in determining the types of lunch-time activities they want. All students must be included in this planning including even the traditionally disenfranchised students.

Staff from closed campus schools report successful lunch-time activities include: movies, intramural athletic activities, tournaments, talent shows, dance contests, and other competitions. Movies can be serial presentations to "hook" students into repeated participation. If the student group or class responsible for the activities is scheduled just prior to the lunch period, members of the group or class can organize and operate many of the programs. If they elect to offer movies during the lunch period, they can advertise the movie, set up the projection, and determine what, if any, costs should be charged.

Activities in which faculty and other staff members play or interact with the students is particularly useful for building school spirit. One school reported that one of its most successful lunch activities is faculty-student street hockey in which teams use plastic hockey sticks and tennis balls.

Lunch-time activities can also provide members of campus clubs and other extracurricular activities opportunities to meet and work on projects. Lunch-time meetings make these activities more accessible to students who are not able to stay after school to participate.

It is suggested that a school-business partnership could be formed in which a commercial store is operated on campus with student "employees." Products for sale would be purchased from a commercial interest at a wholesale price, and the proceeds from sales would go to future student activities.

Staff from the City of Memphis Parks and Recreation Department, colleges and university students (especially fraternities and sororities) and community based programs for youth may be contacted for assistance in planning and coordinating lunch-time programs. Some college and university students may receive work-study credit for the services they provide to schools and districts.

Finally, it was suggested that warnings be provided at the end of the lunch-time activities to avoid tardiness to classes after lunch.

• Supervision

Schools that initiate a closed campus policy initially report the need for increased supervision. After students adapt to the closed campus, the level of supervision can be reduced. Parents, grandparents or service club representatives may be recruited to provide noon time supervision.

These volunteers should be offered training to increase their comfort in supervising the school campuses and a windbreak jacket or other visible sign that they are part of a school-sponsored supervision program.

Step 6: In concert with the Advisory Group, decide whether to engage in a phased in, pilot or total district implementation approach to instituting a closed campus policy district wide.

Step 7: Based upon the decision reached in step 5, develop a written plan for instituting a closed campus policy in all or select Memphis City Schools. The written plan should include a clearly written consistent policy (see samples below) for the entire district to dispel confusion that might arise among students and faculty who transfer schools. The policy must include consequences for violations and may include incentives for compliance. Some districts include grade incentives and other inducements to increase compliance with attendance policies. The policy should be made available in all languages used in the district and circulated to all students, staff, parents, law enforcement agencies and local businesses.

While the closed campus policy is considered a final document, the implementation plan, including steps for implementation and resource allocation, should be considered modifiable based upon findings from on-going data analysis.

During the final planning stages, the Advisory Group may include the sponsoring of a student exchange with a nearby school campus that has a closed-campus policy. Allowing students to "shadow" a buddy on the host campus during the school day and asking the students to report back to the advisory group, student leadership class, or school board, may decrease apprehension and confusion regarding the new policy. When students see the types of student activities and ease of operations on the host campus, they can be strong advocates for their own closed campus.

Step 8: Implement the plan.

Step 9: Identify problems and correct them. Identify successes and celebrate them.

Conclusion and Recommendation:
Clearly, closed school campuses encourage greater and more consistent school and class attendance. Both the direct and indirect benefits that accrue support the use of a closed campus policy for all schools especially those exhibiting problems with truancy. The main challenging factors to consider in making a final determination are student, staff and community support for change and the costs associated with implementing the policy.

The costs to institute a closed campus policy in previously open campus schools will vary from school to school based upon the actual facility structure (the size and number of buildings needed to secure, existing barriers that may be used to demarcate the perimeter, the size and number of potential lunch-time eating and activity areas, etc.); the number of students; available resources in the community, and existing resources in the school (available faculty time, communication equipment, trash cans, etc.). An Advisory Group should be assembled to examine and consider these factors on a school-by-school basis. Once this data is collected, a determination can be made regarding whether it is economically feasible to institute a closed campus policy in select or all Memphis City Schools.

The response that students, their parents, school staff and the community have to change will be a function of individual preference, schedules and habits. While the adage that it will be impossible to please everyone holds true, there is much that can be done on the part of the school system that will increase the comfort and compliance level of many. Key to success in this regard is the gathering of data; open sharing of information; involvement of all key stakeholders in the planning stages; development of well conceived, organized and implemented plans and built in incentives for compliance. There is every reason to believe that a closed campus policy in Memphis City Schools would benefit students, staff and the community.

Sample Closed Campus Policies

In order to keep our students in a supervised, safe, and orderly environment, the Governing Board establishes a "closed campus" at all district high schools. Once students arrive at school, they must remain on campus until the end of the school day unless they have brought written authorization from their parents/guardians and received permission from school authorities to leave for a specific purpose. Students who leave campus without such authorization shall be classified as truant and subject to disciplinary action. (cf. 5113 - Absences and excuses) The Board finds that school facilities and resources are adequate to serve the lunch-time needs of all of our students. The Board further perceives that a closed campus benefits students by encouraging them to participate in school activities, rather than following other pursuits which may not be in their best interests. The requirement to keep students on campus is part of the Board's efforts to maintain a safe school climate and to reduce afternoon absenteeism. The administration shall provide educational, recreational, organizational, and social opportunities for students during the lunch period. (cf. 6145 - re. equal access) The Superintendent or designee shall design a system of identification and passes appropriate for use at each school. Each high school principal shall be expected to enforce mechanisms whereby all students may be accounted for at all times during the school day. Parents/guardians shall be informed whenever students are unaccounted for. (cf. 5112.6 - Parental Notification, Absences) Student handbooks shall fully explain all rules and disciplinary procedures involved in the maintenance of the closed campus. Legal Reference: California Education Code Section 44808.5 (Source: New Haven Unified 5112.5)

It is the policy of the Board of Education that all school campuses are closed for all students. A student must, therefore, have permission from the school office when leaving campus. Consequences for middle and high school students who leave campus without permission during the school day are as follows: 1st Offense-Saturday School. 2nd Offense-Saturday School. 3rd Offense-Suspension. Student visitors require prior principal or principal designee approval. (source: San Jose Unified School District)

XYZ High will have a closed policy. Therefore, students shall not leave the immediate campus without first obtaining an off-campus permit from the Attendance Office. When a student wants to request permission to leave campus, he or she must bring a note from home to the Attendance Office in advance to the absence. When a student is absent for any reason, the parent or guardian should notify the school's Attendance Office personnel immediately by telephone with the following information: the student's name, reason for the absence, and the estimated time of the absence. If the parent or guardian cannot telephone the Attendance Office, he or she may sent a written note with his or her signature to explain the need for each absence. The note should contain the date and reason for each absence. The attendance Office staff can clear an absence only from a telephone conversation with the parent or guardian or a parent conference at school. Please note: it is illegal for any person to sign another person's name to an absence statement. (adapted from the closed campus policy at Centennial High School, Kern Union High School District)

 If a student needs to leave campus during the day, s/he MUST sign out through the office and receive a Dismissal from Class slip.  A student must bring a note from a parent or legal guardian to the office by 8:00 a.m.  The note should include the specific reason for dismissal, a parent or guardian signature and the telephone number of the responsible person whose signature appears on the note.  If the student does not bring a note, the parent or guardian MUST come to the office to check the student out.  A student who does not check in/out properly will be suspended.
 

Students who ride to school must have the parent/guardian or the emergency friend listed on the registration form come into the office to check out the student.  Students who drive to school must bring notes to the office in the morning, so that the staff may call to verify the dismissal.  ALL STUDENTS MUST SIGN THE SIGN-OUT SHEET WHEN LEAVING CAMPUS FOR ANY REASON.  Students should keep the Dismissal from Class slip to show teachers when they return to class.  (Losing this slip could result in assignment to after school detention.)  Most doctors keep afternoon office hours, so students should try very hard to schedule appointments AFTER SCHOOL. Students who are ill and wish to go to the office to check out must have a hall pass and a signed note from a teacher in order to use the telephone. Craigmont High School STUDENT HANDBOOK (2003 – 2004)

Literature

Bach, Lisa Kim, Las Vegas Review-Journal, Rule Will Keep Students in School, August 24, 2002.

California Department of Education, Safe Schools and Violence Prevention: Closed Campus, www.cde.ca.gov/spbranch/safety/policies/closed.asp.

California Department of Education, Safe Schools and Violence Prevention: Sample Closed Campus Board Policies, www.cde.ca.gov/spbranch/safety/policies/closed2.asp.

Gambone, Michelle Alberti and Adena M. Klem, William P. Moore and Jean Ann Summers, First Things First: Creating the Conditions & Capacity for Community-wide Reform in an Urban School District, Gambone & Associates, Philadelphia, January 2002.

Idaho State University College of Education, Intermountain Center for Education Effectiveness, Center for Policy Studies, Education Research, and Community Development Research Brief: Open and Closed Campuses, 2003.

Rozwadowski, Thomas, Green Bay Press-Gazette, Closed Campus Issue Open-and-Shut for Teens, October 24, 2003.

San Diego County Grand Jury 2001-2002, Truancy & Curfew Practices: The Lack of Consistency and Uniformity and its Impact on San Diego County, May 8, 2002.

Smith, Alison and Judith Kahn and Iris Borowsky, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Best Practices in Reducing School Violence, 1999.

Tacoma Public Schools, The Tacoma Public Schools Truancy Program, www.tacoma.k12.wa.us/schools/truancy.asp.

United States Conference of Mayors, A National Action Plan on School Violence and Kids from 2:00 pm to 8:00 pm, adopted at The National Summit, Salt Lake City, September 24, 1998.

Notes

 | Back to Research |